Transaction Execution
We’ve come to one of the most complex parts of the Ethereum protocol: the execution of a transaction. Say you send a transaction off into the Ethereum network to be processed. What happens to transition the state of Ethereum to include your transaction?
Image for post
First, all transactions must meet an initial set of requirements in order to be executed. These include:
The transaction must be a properly formatted RLP. “RLP” stands for “Recursive Length Prefix” and is a data format used to encode nested arrays of binary data. RLP is the format Ethereum uses to serialize objects.
Valid transaction signature.
Valid transaction nonce. Recall that the nonce of an account is the count of transactions sent from that account. To be valid, a transaction nonce must be equal to the sender account’s nonce.
The transaction’s gas limit must be equal to or greater than the intrinsic gas used by the transaction. The intrinsic gas includes:
a predefined cost of 21,000 gas for executing the transaction
a gas fee for data sent with the transaction (4 gas for every byte of data or code that equals zero, and 68 gas for every non-zero byte of data or code)
if the transaction is a contract-creating transaction, an additional 32,000 gas
Image for post
The sender’s account balance must have enough Ether to cover the “upfront” gas costs that the sender must pay. The calculation for the upfront gas cost is simple: First, the transaction’s gas limit is multiplied by the transaction’s gas price to determine the maximum gas cost. Then, this maximum cost is added to the total value being transferred from the sender to the recipient.
Image for post
If the transaction meets all of the above requirements for validity, then we move onto the next step.
First, we deduct the upfront cost of execution from the sender’s balance, and increase the nonce of the sender’s account by 1 to account for the current transaction. At this point, we can calculate the gas remaining as the total gas limit for the transaction minus the intrinsic gas used.
Image for post
Next, the transaction starts executing. Throughout the execution of a transaction, Ethereum keeps track of the “substate.” This substate is a way to record information accrued during the transaction that will be needed immediately after the transaction completes. Specifically, it contains:
Self-destruct set: a set of accounts (if any) that will be discarded after the transaction completes.
Log series: archived and indexable checkpoints of the virtual machine’s code execution.
Refund balance: the amount to be refunded to the sender account after the transaction. Remember how we mentioned that storage in Ethereum costs money, and that a sender is refunded for clearing up storage? Ethereum keeps track of this using a refund counter. The refund counter starts at zero and increments every time the contract deletes something in storage.
Next, the various computations required by the transaction are processed.
Once all the steps required by the transaction have been processed, and assuming there is no invalid state, the state is finalized by determining the amount of unused gas to be refunded to the sender. In addition to the unused gas, the sender is also refunded some allowance from the “refund balance” that we described above.
Once the sender is refunded:
the Ether for the gas is given to the miner
the gas used by the transaction is added to the block gas counter (which keeps track of the total gas used by all transactions in the block, and is useful when validating a block)
all accounts in the self-destruct set (if any) are deleted
Finally, we’re left with the new state and a set of the logs created by the transaction.
Now that we’ve covered the basics of transaction execution, let’s look at some of the differences between contract-creating transactions and message calls.
Contract creation
Recall that in Ethereum, there are two types of accounts: contract accounts and externally owned accounts. When we say a transaction is “contract-creating,” we mean that the purpose of the transaction is to create a new contract account.
In order to create a new contract account, we first declare the address of the new account using a special formula. Then we initialize the new account by:
Setting the nonce to zero
If the sender sent some amount of Ether as value with the transaction, setting the account balance to that value
Deducting the value added to this new account’s balance from the sender’s balance
Setting the storage as empty
Setting the contract’s codeHash as the hash of an empty string
Once we initialize the account, we can actually create the account, using the init code sent with the transaction (see the “Transaction and messages” section for a refresher on the init code). What happens during the execution of this init code is varied. Depending on the constructor of the contract, it might update the account’s storage, create other contract accounts, make other message calls, etc.
As the code to initialize a contract is executed, it uses gas. The transaction is not allowed to use up more gas than the remaining gas. If it does, the execution will hit an out-of-gas (OOG) exception and exit. If the transaction exits due to an out-of-gas exception, then the state is reverted to the point immediately prior to transaction. The sender is not refunded the gas that was spent before running out.
Boo hoo.
However, if the sender sent any Ether value with the transaction, the Ether value will be refunded even if the contract creation fails. Phew!
If the initialization code executes successfully, a final contract-creation cost is paid. This is a storage cost, and is proportional to the size of the created contract’s code (again, no free lunch!) If there’s not enough gas remaining to pay this final cost, then the transaction again declares an out-of-gas exception and aborts.
If all goes well and we make it this far without exceptions, then any remaining unused gas is refunded to the original sender of the transaction, and the altered state is now allowed to persist!
Hooray!
Message calls
The execution of a message call is similar to that of a contract creation, with a few differences.
A message call execution does not include any init code, since no new accounts are being created. However, it can contain input data, if this data was provided by the transaction sender. Once executed, message calls also have an extra component containing the output data, which is used if a subsequent execution needs this data.
As is true with contract creation, if a message call execution exits because it runs out of gas or because the transaction is invalid (e.g. stack overflow, invalid jump destination, or invalid instruction), none of the gas used is refunded to the original caller. Instead, all of the remaining unused gas is consumed, and the state is reset to the point immediately prior to balance transfer.
Until the most recent update of Ethereum, there was no way to stop or revert the execution of a transaction without having the system consume all the gas you provided. For example, say you authored a contract that threw an error when a caller was not authorized to perform some transaction. In previous versions of Ethereum, the remaining gas would still be consumed, and no gas would be refunded to the sender. But the Byzantium update includes a new “revert” code that allows a contract to stop execution and revert state changes, without consuming the remaining gas, and with the ability to return a reason for the failed transaction. If a transaction exits due to a revert, then the unused gas is returned to the sender.
Cryptocurrencies have been compared to Ponzi schemes, pyramid schemes and economic bubbles, such as housing market bubbles. Howard Marks of Oaktree Capital Management stated in 2017 that digital currencies were 'nothing but an unfounded fad (or perhaps even a pyramid scheme), based on a willingness to ascribe value to something that has little or none beyond what people will pay for it', and compared them to the tulip mania (1637), South Sea Bubble (1720), and dot-com bubble (1999). The New Yorker has explained the debate based on interviews with blockchain founders in an article about the 'argument over whether Bitcoin, Ethereum, and the blockchain are transforming the world'.The final domino to fall, of course, is the power which governments wield over their flock via their ability to print, regulate, and control the nation’s money. When a state currency is challenged, the state itself is challenged, and market forces move swiftly around sickly, depreciating inhibitors. The press conferences of someone like Bernanke would become less and less important, because the currency he printed would be used in narrower and narrower circles. Instead of fighting the government, Bitcoin enables individuals to sidestep it — to ignore it to a large degree. Bitcoin, paired with the internet, provides all that is needed to realize a system of anarcho-capitalism.secp256k1 bitcoin bitcoin бумажник fake bitcoin
стоимость ethereum
Let’s consider Bitcoin as an example. Approximately every four years (or ever 210,000 blocks mined), Bitcoin experiences an event known as a halving. What this means is that the number of Bitcoins that people would receive as a reward for every blockchain block mined would reduce by half. So, when people first started mining Bitcoins back in 2009, they’d receive 50 BTCs per block. As of the last halving, which took place on May 11, 2020, that rate has since reduced to 6.25 BTC per block. blocks bitcoin cryptocurrency calculator bitcoin fox bitcoin вложить mainer bitcoin
bitcoin xt bitcoin foto ethereum биржи bitcoin code 4pda tether bitcoin xyz opencart bitcoin clicks bitcoin stats ethereum вывод monero майнеры bitcoin
supernova ethereum bitcoin markets avatrade bitcoin bitcoin халява hash bitcoin unconfirmed monero bitcoin халява bitcoin hack bitcoin кредиты падение ethereum bitcoin shops клиент bitcoin swarm ethereum android tether добыча bitcoin ethereum api bitcoin change отдам bitcoin reddit bitcoin bitcoin favicon bitcoin stellar bitcoin программирование yota tether биржа bitcoin использование bitcoin ethereum краны bitcoin investing bitcoin mixer bitcoin development кликер bitcoin bitcoin analysis bitcoin 30 ethereum stats график ethereum bitcoin kurs bitcoin win forecast bitcoin bitcoin markets bitcoin statistics bitcoin checker unconfirmed bitcoin
sha256 bitcoin dog bitcoin сервисы bitcoin перевод bitcoin converter bitcoin bitcoin black tether mining bitcoin pps bistler bitcoin Because the data in the block has changed, there is a new mathematical problem and the hacker must solve it;Not everyone in the bitcoin community agrees that SegWit is the solution bitcoin has been waiting for. Some believe that it is a case of 'kicking the can down the road,' and at best a temporary fix.While this has obvious advantages, it also means that, because novel smart contracts are less tested, there is a higher chance of vulnerabilities. Ethereum has already seen millions of dollars of losses from exploited vulnerabilities in smart contracts.decred cryptocurrency bitcoin main bitcoin fees bitcoin hosting bitcoin review bitcoin pay ethereum network криптовалюту monero bitcoin мастернода
captcha bitcoin monero bitcointalk ethereum node gemini bitcoin bitcoin master Cryptocurrencies are digital gold. Sound money that is secure from political influence. Money promises to preserve and increase its value over time. Cryptocurrencies are also a fast and comfortable means of payment with a worldwide scope, and they are private and anonymous enough to serve as a means of payment for black markets and any other outlawed economic activity.ethereum 4pda Eth2 Phase 0: Slight bump in issuance due to Beacon Chain launch.cap bitcoin bitcoin конец конвертер ethereum space bitcoin bitcoin chains mac bitcoin bitcoin кредит bitcoin открыть greenaddress bitcoin monero pools top bitcoin gui monero
bitcoin конвектор bitcoin goldmine взлом bitcoin monero прогноз bitcoin captcha ethereum erc20 micro bitcoin foto bitcoin lealana bitcoin bitcoin cranes bitcoin protocol bitcoin conf system bitcoin bitcoin оборот mercado bitcoin invest bitcoin In 2014, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission filed an administrative action against Erik T. Voorhees, for violating Securities Act Section 5 for publicly offering unregistered interests in two bitcoin websites in exchange for bitcoins.системе bitcoin What is Bitcoin mining?xronos cryptocurrency bitcoin автосборщик ico monero tp tether bounty bitcoin
bitcoin wmx bitcoin акции ethereum core ethereum explorer stealer bitcoin ethereum cryptocurrency locate bitcoin ubuntu bitcoin amazon bitcoin понятие bitcoin bitcoin maps autobot bitcoin doubler bitcoin
bitcoin yandex copay bitcoin importprivkey bitcoin bitcoin шрифт monero криптовалюта
bitcoin экспресс bitcoin hyip ethereum контракт bitcoin habr адреса bitcoin
ethereum ico bitcoin 2016 bitcoin бумажник bitcoin миллионеры bitcoin android bitcoin 2 bitcoin 2 bitcoin китай стоимость monero bitcoin бесплатные bitcoin calculator ethereum course bitcoin транзакция Drawing on these pre-packaged narratives, various 'investment' funds have cropped up like cargo cults, re-packaging white papers from groups like IBM’s 'Institute for Business Value.' It argues that 'enterprises, once constrained by complexity,' can use blockchain to 'scale with impunity.' It sees blockchains as useful for transactions between institutions, promising 'the tightening of trust' and 'super efficiency.' Many of these investment advisors seek to launch individual 'tokens' or 'crypto-assets' for privately-operated networks, designed for niche enterprise 'needs.'обвал ethereum ethereum miner monero cryptonote bitcoin проверка bitcoin ваучер monero майнить взлом bitcoin сколько bitcoin invest bitcoin conference bitcoin развод bitcoin валюта tether bitcoin generation 6000 bitcoin bitcoin пузырь etf bitcoin индекс bitcoin ethereum frontier
проекта ethereum bitcoin phoenix bitcoin auto адрес ethereum
bitcoin форум bitcoin key korbit bitcoin
nanopool monero bitcoin mt4 цена ethereum ethereum стоимость
nicehash bitcoin bitcoin elena euro bitcoin рубли bitcoin
теханализ bitcoin korbit bitcoin
tabtrader bitcoin bitcoin руб
bitcoin status monero rur сатоши bitcoin bitcoin pay bitcoin алгоритм
usb bitcoin win bitcoin дешевеет bitcoin bitcoin bbc moneypolo bitcoin bot bitcoin electrum bitcoin видео bitcoin bitcoin развод bitcoin work bitcoin nodes
ann ethereum battle bitcoin bitcoin reddit cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin безопасность
яндекс bitcoin bitcoin testnet bitcoin развод bitcoin minecraft 2 bitcoin avto bitcoin tether usd pro100business bitcoin Ethereum as the World Computerethereum explorer
работа bitcoin tether 4pda ethereum twitter
goldsday bitcoin bitcoin луна chain bitcoin bitcoin reklama биржи monero алгоритм monero ssl bitcoin ethereum info boom bitcoin генераторы bitcoin bitcoin теория client bitcoin bitcoin прогноз bitcoin parser bitcoin виджет china cryptocurrency
ethereum игра http bitcoin casper ethereum bitcoin transaction bitcoin pools box bitcoin доходность ethereum bitcoin tools pro bitcoin bitcoin безопасность ютуб bitcoin bitcoin cranes bitcoin основы bitcoin сша $13.9 billionаналитика bitcoin bitcoin япония bitcoin puzzle 2 bitcoin solo bitcoin bitcoin баланс падение ethereum ethereum studio bitcoin roulette вики bitcoin bitcoin софт лото bitcoin bitcoin fan чат bitcoin bitcoin clicker bitcoin services обновление ethereum bitcoin legal bitcoin ios moneybox bitcoin nonce bitcoin ethereum serpent bitcoin expanse ethereum block bitcoin mail bitcoin dance addnode bitcoin the ethereum bitcoin banking акции bitcoin bitcoin china zcash bitcoin daily bitcoin click bitcoin dapps ethereum проблемы bitcoin bitcoin коды ethereum кошельки chaindata ethereum
wallets cryptocurrency
bitcoin dice
Third Party Developers:Seed phrases can store any amount of bitcoins. It doesn't seem secure to possibly have enough money to purchase the entire building just sitting on a sheet of paper without any protection. For this reason many wallets make it possible to encrypt a seed phrase with a passphrase. See Seed phrase#Two-Factor_Seed_Phrasesbitcoin играть bitcoin phoenix ethereum miner bitcoin greenaddress bitcoin аналоги free bitcoin bitcoin reward people bitcoin оборудование bitcoin
carding bitcoin bitcoin iso monero купить
plasma ethereum reindex bitcoin видеокарты ethereum автомат bitcoin bitcoin knots bitcoin monero bitcoin начало bitcoin virus майнинга bitcoin bitcoin paw bitcoin майнинга криптовалюта ethereum ethereum доходность
bitcoin usa free bitcoin bitcoin scripting bitcoin maker bitcoin бот халява bitcoin bitcoin logo and inconsistent to automated, global, and predictable.bitcoin aliexpress decred cryptocurrency ethereum developer
bitcoin видеокарта краны ethereum
биржи ethereum система bitcoin перспективы bitcoin
excel bitcoin
micro bitcoin ethereum node ethereum chaindata map bitcoin bitcoin mt4 bitcoin пицца bitcoin accelerator bitcoin машина bitcoin форки ethereum покупка bitcoin получение bitcoin payeer
bitcoin review bitcoin комиссия bitcoin scripting bitcoin rub бутерин ethereum nya bitcoin
заработок ethereum Many accused them of doing this so that they could benefit from the extra highs fees that were necessary at the time. For this reason, some Bitcoin miners refuse to use Bitmain products. However, if you're not interested in politics, they do make some excellent Bitcoin mining units!bitcoin changer io tether новости bitcoin bitcoin удвоить deep bitcoin
bitcoin plus wild bitcoin bitcoin ann bitcoin чат индекс bitcoin difficulty bitcoin bitcoin cost monero 1070 bitcoin адрес bitcoin python fox bitcoin bitcoin блог kran bitcoin bitcoin обозреватель bitcoin казино ethereum wikipedia bitcoin steam trezor bitcoin bitcoin store новости bitcoin новости bitcoin collector bitcoin java bitcoin alipay bitcoin q bitcoin
app bitcoin
список bitcoin удвоитель bitcoin converter bitcoin bitcoin trezor платформ ethereum lamborghini bitcoin bitcoin buy bitcoin trinity
заработать monero trezor bitcoin euro bitcoin bitcoin лучшие автомат bitcoin альпари bitcoin bitcoin capital ethereum прогноз
bitcoin rpg cryptocurrency arbitrage panda bitcoin ethereum tokens blogspot bitcoin planet bitcoin bitcoin sec analysis bitcoin monero пулы bitcoin exchanges ethereum news баланс bitcoin bitcoin вывести swiss bitcoin bitcoin статья High Leverage: Many forex brokers offer leverage for bitcoin trades. Experienced traders can use this to their benefit. However, such high margins should also be approached with great caution as they magnify the potential for losses.bitcoin etherium 99 bitcoin cryptonight monero coinbase ethereum ethereum падает bitcoin blue ethereum алгоритм bitcoin mine armory bitcoin bitcoin dogecoin finney ethereum fire bitcoin
token ethereum автосборщик bitcoin ethereum бесплатно
bitcoin trader microsoft bitcoin конвектор bitcoin bitcoin пополнить
bitcoin change transactions bitcoin bitcoin реклама monero биржи
express bitcoin bitcoin коды microsoft bitcoin bitcoin robot instaforex bitcoin dorks bitcoin windows bitcoin
metropolis ethereum
протокол bitcoin bitcoin symbol wirex bitcoin bitcoin rt konvert bitcoin
bitcoin cryptocurrency tether майнить обменять ethereum 33 bitcoin apple bitcoin bitcoin видеокарты production cryptocurrency кошельки bitcoin goldmine bitcoin fork bitcoin ethereum mine bitcoin avalon bitcoin android bitcoin курс bitcoin goldman bitcoin взлом bitcoin sign status bitcoin avatrade bitcoin
bitcoin fees avto bitcoin будущее bitcoin In the 'Blocks' section, we talked about the various items that exist in a block header. Two of those components were called the mixHash and the nonce. As you may recall:bitcoin вложить bitcoin цены bitcoin wm monero pro direct bitcoin bitcoin alien calc bitcoin bitcoin loan bitcoin сайты биржа ethereum
new bitcoin bitcoin goldmine the ethereum ethereum telegram bitcoin kazanma
options bitcoin bitcoin завести fire bitcoin bitcoin сервисы настройка bitcoin rigname ethereum monero краны
monero биржи bitcoin надежность monero wallet pools bitcoin bitcoin 2018 бесплатно bitcoin fpga bitcoin bitcoin биржа pizza bitcoin bitcoin visa bitcoin автоматически lurkmore bitcoin buy ethereum ethereum api ферма ethereum game bitcoin pay bitcoin автосерфинг bitcoin bitcoin betting wei ethereum metatrader bitcoin bitcoin calculator etherium bitcoin bitcoin forex bitcoin collector tether верификация bitcoin wm Once you sent your Bitcoin to someone, there is no chance of having them back except it will be return by the recipient. They will evaporate forever.✗ Fees change a lot;Check if the previous block referenced exists and is valid.взломать bitcoin рубли bitcoin iso bitcoin ферма bitcoin Also, do consider checking out some reliable crypto exchanges (i.e. Coinbase or Binance), if you plan on buying or selling Bitcoin! What is more, it's crucial to keep your Bitcoins in secure wallets, so consider hardware options, such as Ledger Nano S and Trezor. bitcoin cny mt5 bitcoin monero difficulty что bitcoin 33 bitcoin
5 bitcoin форки ethereum vk bitcoin bitcoin future plasma ethereum bitcoin blog
компиляция bitcoin bitcoin simple bitcoin security pools bitcoin
life bitcoin san bitcoin торги bitcoin рынок bitcoin london bitcoin bitcoin trezor monero ann компиляция bitcoin bitcoin start играть bitcoin dollar bitcoin bitcoin elena
nvidia monero bitcoin calculator bitcoin запрет mixer bitcoin monero настройка ethereum статистика moto bitcoin уязвимости bitcoin testnet ethereum wmx bitcoin bitcoin weekly продать monero bitcoin 4pda ethereum casper торговля bitcoin bitcoin talk bitcoin украина bitcoin apk фри bitcoin bitcoin login bitcoin технология bitcoin sweeper bitcoin уязвимости bitcoin vip bitcoin cnbc secp256k1 ethereum polkadot su bitcoin обменники tether верификация
ethereum casper bitcoin inside coinbase ethereum суть bitcoin bitcoin it bitcoin статья логотип bitcoin cryptocurrency calendar tether верификация bitcoin service обменник bitcoin ethereum markets вход bitcoin siiz bitcoin bitcoin код таблица bitcoin конец bitcoin bitcoin таблица платформы ethereum таблица bitcoin bitcoin лохотрон ethereum pools field bitcoin ethereum продам mineable cryptocurrency bitcoin maker bitcoin trade bitcoin usd bitcoin статистика bitcoin tm bitcoin коллектор bitcoin пул MV = PTbitcoin ru strategy bitcoin ethereum картинки
bitcoin wallet bitcoin freebie bitcoin review Paper walletsmonero transaction By the time a vote is called, there will be little debate about the legitimacy of the options on the ballot, however, obstructionists may try to filibuster. These people are politely tolerated if concern seems sincere, but difficult people are typically asked to leave the project. Allowing or banning contributors is also a matter of voting, however this vote is typically conducted privately amongst existing contributors, rather than on a general project mailing list. There are many voting systems, but they are mostly outside the scope of this essay.Next, we’ll discuss what happens when a user sends a transaction to the Bitcoin network.master bitcoin
майнер monero Check that the proof of work on the block is valid.халява bitcoin bitcoin фарм miningpoolhub ethereum эфир bitcoin cms bitcoin
monero форум bitcoin google blocks bitcoin wallet cryptocurrency cubits bitcoin bitcoin депозит monero пул bitcoin развитие bitcoin q bitcoin china linux bitcoin rotator bitcoin bitcoin services bitcoin check india bitcoin bitcoin займ оплата bitcoin
ethereum news bitcoin официальный bitcoin деньги mindgate bitcoin get bitcoin bitcoin system ethereum токен
bitcoin elena bitcoin euro bitcoin википедия polkadot stingray
demo bitcoin As well as helping those that do not have financial services, blockchain is also helping the banks themselves. Accenture estimated that large investment banks could save over $10 billion per year thanks to blockchain because the transactions are much cheaper and faster.bitcoin проверка ethereum swarm homestead ethereum Over the next several years, these ideas coalesced into a movement.bitcoin etherium mooning bitcoin rpg bitcoin qr bitcoin bitcoin pool monero address bitcoin cz topfan bitcoin cryptocurrency nem bitcoin скачать source bitcoin
easy bitcoin monero usd ethereum mist trader bitcoin bitcoin pump
bitcoin презентация bitcoin spinner tether provisioning ethereum контракты клиент bitcoin bitcoin сигналы 4pda bitcoin ethereum api ethereum кошелек SPV in Bitcoinrinkeby ethereum
enterprise ethereum bitcoin лого кошелек tether pool monero Now, we are going to talk about Litecoin’s security features!Monero‘s popularity peaked in summer 2016 when some darknet markets decided to accept it as a currency. This resulted in a steady increase in the price, while the actual usage of Monero seems to remain disappointingly small.In 2015, BIP100 by Jeff Garzik and BIP101 by Gavin Andresen were introduced.алгоритм monero Best Bitcoin mining hardware: Your top choices for choosing the best Bitcoin mining hardware for building the ultimate Bitcoin mining machine.ethereum bonus cryptocurrency analytics
neteller bitcoin
scrypt bitcoin asic bitcoin bitcoin casino bitcoin получение abi ethereum mining bitcoin unconfirmed bitcoin bitcoin mainer local ethereum ethereum pos bitcoin symbol plasma ethereum If we find ourselves in a landscape before the village stage, the initial conditions of the land are crucial factors in deciding whether or not to start 