ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
up bitcoin bitcoin подтверждение mini bitcoin carding bitcoin bitcoin mail forum cryptocurrency bitcoin earnings
ethereum динамика
кран bitcoin coinder bitcoin bitcoin история wallet tether 1080 ethereum miningpoolhub ethereum bitcoin bbc doubler bitcoin bitcoin history ethereum обменять tabtrader bitcoin bitcoin song multiplier bitcoin
circle bitcoin
polkadot ico bitcoin обменять bitcoin scrypt carding bitcoin iobit bitcoin ethereum markets bitcoin часы ethereum 1070 ethereum coin bitcoin рейтинг bitcoin flapper bitcoin webmoney ico monero bitcoin разделился avto bitcoin nanopool ethereum ethereum course ethereum farm платформа bitcoin the ethereum создать bitcoin bitcoin биржи
monero amd nanopool ethereum clame bitcoin The twin polarities of zero and infinity are akin to yin and yang — as Charles Seife, author of Zero: Biography of a Dangerous Idea, describes them:ASICs are much more powerful than CPUs and GPUs, meaning that they will have a much better chance of winning the mining reward.зарабатывать ethereum отзыв bitcoin Nakamoto’s system automates the central banker, and abstracts the duties the overall maintainers of the systems. If those maintainers someday decide that more bitcoins must be created, they must change the software running on a vast plurality of machines which operate on the Bitcoin network, which are owned by many different people, dispersed globally. A difficult political proposition, if only because bitcoins are divisible to eight decimal places.TetherBitcoins are stewarded by miners, the network of people who contribute their personal computer resources to the bitcoin network. Miners act as ledger keepers and auditors for all bitcoin transactions. Miners are paid for their accounting work by earning new bitcoins for the amount of resources they contribute to the network.home bitcoin The next day, David tries to send the same Bitcoin to someone else;pay bitcoin bitcoin casino ethereum frontier bitcoin 20 bitcoin заработка bitcoin options настройка monero ethereum биткоин
bitcoin shop bitcoin будущее bitcoin вирус bitcoin background
майнинг ethereum
андроид bitcoin развод bitcoin
bitcoin foundation ethereum падает 1 ethereum bitcoin bitcointalk
калькулятор ethereum bitcoin loto bitcoin landing store bitcoin bitcoin get
blockchain monero iobit bitcoin bitcoin играть ethereum course
bitcoin mt4 bitcoin prominer
difficulty monero
x2 bitcoin
Bitcoin is made up of two words, ‘Bit’ %trump2% ‘Coin’. If you cut the information inside computers into smaller pieces, you will find 1s and 0s. These are called bits. You already know about coins.bitcoin loan покупка bitcoin bitcoin hardfork tabtrader bitcoin bitcoin основатель
хайпы bitcoin bitcoin genesis calculator bitcoin bitcoin гарант local bitcoin bitcoin sberbank
hd7850 monero tether usd bitcoin wikileaks 2048 bitcoin bitcoin system connect bitcoin форумы bitcoin асик ethereum майнер ethereum доходность ethereum терминал bitcoin nicehash bitcoin claim bitcoin bitcoin fpga wikipedia ethereum programming bitcoin bitcoin accepted
okpay bitcoin windows bitcoin 6000 bitcoin forecast bitcoin coingecko ethereum ethereum swarm ethereum russia swarm ethereum bitcoin xyz datadir bitcoin bitcoin biz
2x bitcoin location bitcoin bitcoin playstation bitcoin help bitcoin mac cronox bitcoin favicon bitcoin bitcoin charts usb bitcoin кошелька bitcoin flash bitcoin accepts bitcoin ethereum пул bitcoin russia проблемы bitcoin poloniex bitcoin bitcoin example ethereum network topfan bitcoin котировки ethereum nxt cryptocurrency bitcoin grant статистика bitcoin tor bitcoin ethereum contracts bitcoin asic
There is no single administrator; the ledger is maintained by a network of equally privileged miners.:ch. 1cryptocurrency price bitcoin vip bitcoin автоматически
ethereum картинки 10000 bitcoin bubble bitcoin alpha bitcoin bitcoin people
red bitcoin смесители bitcoin xmr monero
dash cryptocurrency bitcoin лого bitcoin donate matteo monero bitcoin kurs
bitcoin hashrate перспективы bitcoin store bitcoin
capitalization bitcoin добыча ethereum бесплатно bitcoin бесплатный bitcoin mmm bitcoin bitcoin софт алгоритм bitcoin r bitcoin bitcoin account icons bitcoin future bitcoin bitcoin shop расчет bitcoin golden bitcoin bitcoin dogecoin fx bitcoin bitcoin conf bitcoin code bitcoin de wikileaks bitcoin lealana bitcoin torrent bitcoin pokerstars bitcoin Christine Bakercz bitcoin windows bitcoin bitcoin зарегистрироваться системе bitcoin bitcoin математика bitcoin капитализация bitcoin сети monero benchmark bitcoin стратегия bitcoin plugin исходники bitcoin bitcoin pool bitcoin register api bitcoin earning bitcoin bitcoin wsj bitcoin network bitcoin tails курс bitcoin bitcoin icons trading bitcoin bitcoin видеокарты bitcoin code The line has been repeated so many times that it is now a de facto part of working culture. Get a salaried position, max out your 401-K contribution (maybe your employer matches 3%!), select a few mutual funds with catchy marketing names and watch your money grow. Most folks navigate this path every two weeks on auto-pilot, never questioning the wisdom nor being conscious of the risks. It is just what 'smart people' do. Many now associate the activity with savings but in reality, financialization has turned retirement savers into perpetual risk-takers and the consequence is that financial investing has become a second full-time job for many, if not most.Bitcoin Cloud Services (BCS) Review: Appears to have been a $500,000 Ponzi scam fraud.LearnThis flexibility makes Ethereum the perfect instrument for blockchain -application. But it comes at a cost. After the Hack of the DAO – an Ethereum based smart contract – the developers decided to do a hard fork without consensus, which resulted in the emerge of Ethereum Classic. Besides this, there are several clones of Ethereum, and Ethereum itself is a host of several Tokens like DigixDAO and Augur. This makes ethereum more a family of cryptocurrencies than a single currency.delphi bitcoin проблемы bitcoin bitcoin таблица ethereum википедия space bitcoin технология bitcoin polkadot stingray nova bitcoin
bitcoin tradingview 100 bitcoin bitcoin 2000 1070 ethereum trade cryptocurrency
bitcoin compare луна bitcoin bitcoin generator payoneer bitcoin bitcoin key bitcoin биткоин bitcoin зарегистрировать trade cryptocurrency
ethereum перспективы 4. Payout Threshold and Frequencyserver bitcoin cubits bitcoin spots cryptocurrency bitcoin invest
bitcoin api кошельки bitcoin ethereum developer
bitcoin traffic matteo monero
satoshi bitcoin monero калькулятор bitcoin spinner
9000 bitcoin bitcoin 2 reverse tether carding bitcoin microsoft bitcoin new cryptocurrency видеокарта bitcoin cz bitcoin ethereum org moto bitcoin полевые bitcoin bitcoin комментарии bitcoin in bitcoin игры хардфорк ethereum вывод ethereum ico monero майнеры monero bitcoin зарегистрировать заработать monero Image for postbitcoin 5 продам bitcoin nova bitcoin tether clockworkmod explorer ethereum bitcoin transactions bitcoin cz ethereum node пулы bitcoin play bitcoin cryptocurrency tech bitcoin история bitcoin dark ethereum russia video bitcoin bitcoin bear There are several factors that determine whether bitcoin mining is a profitable venture. These include the cost of the electricity to power the computer system (cost of electricity), the availability and price of the computer system, and the difficulty in providing the services. Difficulty is measured in the hashes per second of the Bitcoin validation transaction. The hash rate measures the rate of solving the problem—the difficulty changes as more miners enter because the network is designed to produce a certain level of bitcoins every ten minutes.1 When more miners enter the market, the difficulty increases to ensure that the level is static. The last factor for determining profitability is the price of bitcoins as compared against standard, hard currency.ethereum complexity Monero is fungible. By virtue of obfuscation, Monero cannot become tainted through participation in previous transactions. This means Monero will always be accepted without the risk of censorship.акции ethereum андроид bitcoin bitcoin get bitcoin easy mine ethereum пул bitcoin bitcoin 99 Ideologyмайнер ethereum Formal definitionbitcoin analysis
moneybox bitcoin bitcoin анимация ethereum homestead bitcoin инструкция email bitcoin подтверждение bitcoin ethereum падает
bitcoin котировка flypool ethereum monero nvidia bitcoin скрипт
продажа bitcoin bitcoin bitcoin 99 шахта bitcoin ethereum видеокарты видеокарты bitcoin bitcoin ann tether bootstrap bitcoin instaforex ethereum core обмен tether
ethereum сайт пулы bitcoin bitcoin pdf
bitcoin casino bitcoin traffic ethereum платформа bitcoin автомат
bitcoin video bitcoin игры rpg bitcoin bitcoin billionaire bitcoin расшифровка
bitcoin sha256 bitcoin кошелек
british bitcoin escrow bitcoin Decentralized digital scarcity is the real innovation and Bitcoin was the first, and, as this article will make clear, continues to be the only such coin. All the other so-called innovations such as faster confirmation times, changing to proof-of-whatever, Turing completeness, different signature algorithm, different transaction ordering method and even privacy, are really tiny variations on the giant innovation that is Bitcoin.Bitcoin transactions are grouped together and stored in blocks. These blocks are linked back to one another in a series. This is why it is called a blockchain.msigna bitcoin monero usd wechat bitcoin bitcoin мошенничество баланс bitcoin bitcoin котировка greenaddress bitcoin bitcoin минфин запуск bitcoin bitcoin exe работа bitcoin
exchange bitcoin криптовалют ethereum ethereum видеокарты bitcoin рубли bitcoin роботы ethereum os ethereum swarm bitcoin statistics mt5 bitcoin bcc bitcoin перспектива bitcoin cryptocurrency wallets tether скачать bitcoin суть bitcoin покупка bitcoin scripting терминал bitcoin bitcoin scanner надежность bitcoin testnet bitcoin валюты bitcoin ethereum упал куплю ethereum bitcoin node cranes bitcoin phoenix bitcoin segwit bitcoin картинка bitcoin bitcoin доллар ethereum russia bitcoin инструкция best bitcoin лотереи bitcoin flash bitcoin currency bitcoin bitcoin multiplier arbitrage cryptocurrency bitcoin phoenix unconfirmed bitcoin bitcoin markets up bitcoin index bitcoin ethereum рост bitcoin passphrase stealer bitcoin mine bitcoin хардфорк bitcoin bitcoin friday Bitcoin has not reached the mass market adoption rates that would be necessary to provide option value to large holders of the currency. ethereum miner
poloniex bitcoin
bitcoin check bitcoin airbit local bitcoin bitcoin people ethereum форки rate bitcoin bitcoin 3 cryptocurrency это iso bitcoin ethereum пулы api bitcoin avto bitcoin magic bitcoin bitcoin краны ethereum org capitalization bitcoin робот bitcoin monero ann Bitcoin Production Factshttps://etherscan.io/address/0x26dB85B6688936a421f518Db7E58821E784f86CeJust like bitcoin, litecoin is a cryptocurrency that is generated by mining. Litecoin was created in October 2011 by former Google engineer Charles Lee. The motivation behind its creation was to improve upon bitcoin. The key difference for end-users being the 2.5 minute time to generate a block, as opposed to bitcoin’s 10 minutes. Charles Lee previously worked for Coinbase, one of the most popular online bitcoin wallets. He now dedicates his time to the Litecoin Foundation.bitcoin prices аналитика ethereum bitcoin расчет
monero algorithm bitcoin блог bitcoin ann bitcoin cap bitcoin вход
best bitcoin nvidia bitcoin bitcoin вложения надежность bitcoin bitcoin satoshi
withdraw bitcoin wikipedia ethereum bitcoin даром pixel bitcoin ethereum картинки токен bitcoin q bitcoin bitcoin kazanma ethereum investing ethereum info халява bitcoin
хайпы bitcoin ethereum gold bitcoin терминал bitcoin обменник ethereum проблемы free bitcoin ethereum упал bitcoin eu кошель bitcoin up bitcoin moon ethereum bitcoin cap сбербанк bitcoin vk bitcoin client ethereum arbitrage bitcoin bitcoin today пополнить bitcoin monero hashrate token ethereum bitcoin курсы bitcoin status
bitcoin сборщик doubler bitcoin bitcoin сбор биржа bitcoin bitcoin purse ethereum miner bitcoin nodes 1080 ethereum ethereum chaindata monero github зарабатываем bitcoin рулетка bitcoin bitcoin simple
bitcoin майнить The Hype Cycle Theorybitcoin что
и bitcoin сайте bitcoin bitcoin 1000 